During CHF, cardiac output is low and blood circulation does not meet tissue needs.

Chronic/persistent hypertension is one cause of CHF.

Stroke volume is higher than normal.

Coronary atherosclerosis is one cause of CHF.

The AV valves are closed.

The ventricles are empty.

The atria are in systole.

The ventricular cardiac muscle is relaxed.

right ventricle

left ventricle

right atrium

left atrium

needs to generate more force to pump blood into the systemic circulation than the right ventricle does to pump blood into the pulmonary circulation.

has a smaller stroke volume than the right ventricle.

has a higher stroke volume than the right ventricle.

PO2 in the alveoli is greater than PO2 in the pulmonary capillaries

PCO2 in the alveoli is greater than PO2 in the alveoli

PCO2 in the alveoli is greater than PCO2 in the pulmonary capillaries

PO2 in the alveoli is less than PO2 in the pulmonary capillaries

low CO2 levels in brain (CSF) and blood

low O2 levels in brain (CSF) and blood

high CO2 levels in brain (CSF) and blood

high O2 levels in brain (CSF) and blood

Bronchodilation

Increased perfusion of alveoli

Formation of scar tissue from fibrosis in the lungs.

Decreased surface tension in the alveoli.

It helps increase CO2 levels in blood and brain which normalizes breathing.

It increases compliance of the lungs to normalize breathing.

It helps increase O2 levels in the blood which normalizes breathing.

It reduces surface tension in the alveoli to normalize breathing.

tidal volume

vital capacity

inspiratory reserve volume

expiratory reserve volume

Short reflexes act locally within the enteric nervous system/GI tract.

The effectors of the digestive system are smooth muscle and glands.

Communication with the CNS is required to regulate GI activity.

Some of the internal stimuli which can trigger digestive reflexes are pH, stretch/pressure, and osmolarity.